A. Title

Observation of Organs and Organ Systems in Plants and Animals

B. Objectives

1. Explaining the Derivatives of Plant Organs

2. Explain the parts of roots in plants

3. Explain the parts of the stem in plants

4. Explain the parts of leaves on plants

5. Mention the parts of the reproductive organs in plants.

6. Explain the parts of Cyprinus carpio

7. Explain the parts of Oreochromis niloticus

C. Tools and Materials

D. Work Procedures

E. Observation Results

F. Discussion Results

      From the results of observations and measurements of plant organs, we can distinguish the parts of plant organs including the roots ( radix ), stems ( caulis ), leaves ( folium ), and flowers. In the Amaranthus spinosus plant, we conducted morphological observations and found that the Amaranthus spinosus plant has fibrous roots measuring 13.7 cm, has a stem of 44 cm, has a base of 4.7 cm, and has stamens. In the Zea mays plant, we conducted morphological observations and found that the Zea mays plant has fibrous roots measuring 19.2 cm, has a stem of 195.3 cm, has a leaf tip ( speks ) of 77 cm, and has stamens. In the Musa paradisiaca plant, we conducted morphological observations and found that the Musa paradisiaca plant has fibrous roots, has a stem of 13.7 cm , has a leaf tip ( speks ), and has pistils and stamens. In the Caesalpinia pulcherima plant , we conducted morphological observations and obtained the results that the Caesalpinia pulcherima plant has primary roots, a stem length ( internode ) of 62.3 cm, a base leaf length ( base ) of 1.2 cm, and has pistils and stamens.

       Plant anatomy is defined as a part of botany that studies the shape and structure of the internal parts of plants. Plant anatomy includes 3 (three) parts: These body organs include the anatomy of the roots, stems, leaves, and flowers (Malti, Ghosh, Kaushik, Ramasamy, Rajkumar, Vidyasagar. 2017).

      For observation on Fish We dissect it with a scalpel and carefully remove the inside. After that, we take the outside and inside to get certain parts. For the outside we take the tail, scales, eyes, dorsal fin, pelpic scales, and mouth. While the inside is like gills, gall, liver, and intestines.

DOCUMENTATION

A. Title

Analysis of Morphological Structure Differences in Bacteria and Fungi

B. Objectives of the Practical Work

1). For Bacterial Colony Morphology

2). To Study the Morphology of Fungal Colonies (Molds and Yeasts)

C. Tools and Materials

1). Tools

2). Materials

D. Work Procedures

a). Morphology of Bacterial Colonies

b). Morphology of Fungal Colonies

E. Observation Results

A.  Staphylococcus aureus bacteria

 B. Escherichia coli bacteria

C. Mushrooms

F. Discussion Results

     On Tuesday, October 15, 2024, we as representatives of each group conducted a pre-lab to make media for Escherichia Coli and Staphylococcus Aureus bacteria. The materials we used were 150 ml of distilled water, 3 grams of NA, and 1 gram of powder. Previously, the equipment used was sterilized in laminar air flow. Then 150 ml of distilled water, 3 grams of NA, and 1 gram of powder were mixed in a sterilized Erlenmeyer flask. Then heated on a hot plate for 10 minutes at a temperature of 60 degrees. After that, the media made was sterilized in an autoclave at a temperature of 121 degrees for 15 minutes. After the media was sterilized, it was then put in laminar air flow. After that, it was put into the incubator and left for 1 x 24 hours.

      On Wednesday, October 16, we counted Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus Aureus bacteria that we had made on Tuesday, October 12, 2024, which we left for 1x24 hours. Where we got the number of Escherichia Coli bacteria as many as 78, and Staphylococcus Aureus bacteria as many as 645 which were counted using a colony counter tool. The first step taken by the practicum on fungal morphology was to take a sample of fungus on bread using tweezers, which was then placed on a glass slide that had been sterilized using alcohol, after which the sample was dripped with giemsa dye solution, which was then solidified using a cover glass and then observed under a microscope.

According to Syaifuddin (2017) Bread damage is generally caused by the growth of mold, namely Aspergillus Flavus and Rhizopus sp. Some molds can produce aflatoxins which are harmful to humans. One of the mold species that has detrimental properties is Aspergillus Flavus. Aspergillus Flavus mold is the main mold that produces mycotoxins, namely aflatoxins. Aflatoxins are toxins derived from fungi that are known to be deadly and carcinogenic to humans. High aflatoxin content in food can cause poisoning.

According to Mugiono (2015) Yeast is a unicellular fungus that some types are used in making bread or fermentation of alcoholic beverages. Even yeast is used for the manufacture of biological fuel cells, the most commonly used yeast is sacchoromycos cerevisiae which is used for the production of wine, bread, and beer in the form of yeast.

DOCUMENTATION

Observation of Fungal Colony Morphology under a Microscope

Counting the Number of Bacteria Using a Colony Counter

A. Title

Simulation of Mendel's Law Experiment Using Genetic Buttons in Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses

B. Objectives of the Practical Work

1. Define the terms gene, locus, genotype, phenotype, genome, dominant, and recessive.

2. Making crosses with one different trait (monohybrid)

3. Making a cross with two different traits (dihybrid)

C. Tools and Materials

1) Lab Coat Pocket

2) Genetic Button (Gene Model)

D. Work Procedures

a). Monohybrid

b). Dihybrid

E. Observation Results

1.  Monohybrid

2. Dihybrid

F. Discussion Results

1. Monohybrid Cross

      Monohybrid crossing is a crossing of two individuals with a focus on two different traits. In this experiment, we conducted a monohybrid crossing using genetic buttons (gene models) by crossing red flowers and blue flowers in order to prove Mendel's first law. Red flowers (MM) are dominant, symbolized by the red genetic button, and white flowers (mm) are recessive, symbolized by the white genetic button. Crossing between red buttons (MM) and white buttons (mm) resulted in F1 which was red (Mm) because the red button was dominant. F1 was crossed with each other, three types of phenotypes were obtained, namely red-red, red-white, and white-white. With genotypes for red (MM), red-white (Mm), and white-white (mm). According to Mendel's law of comparison, the phenotype ratio for monohybrid crossing is 3: 1. Based on the results of the experiments we conducted, for taking 8x the data obtained were for red as much as 2x, red-white as much as 4x, and for white as much as 2x. so that a ratio of 2:4:2 is obtained which is close to the ratio of 1:1:1 or 2:1. These results do not match the results of Mendel's experiments and are a deviation from Mendel's first law. These deviations are only apparent deviations due to the influence of the dominance of a trait, in this case the color red. From the results of the chis-square calculations that we did, we got the results of the monohybrid cross there was no difference (Ho) because Ho was acceptable, based on the value of the calculation table, the value was smaller than the chi-square, which was 1.1, while from the chi-square table it was 3.84. 

2. Dihybrid Crossing

      Dihybrid crossing is a crossing of two different traits. In dihybrid crossing we try to cross two different traits, namely color and shape. Where the colors are Red and Yellow, while the shapes are round and oval. In dihybrid crossing, the red genetic button is red, the yellow genetic button remains yellow, the green genetic button is round while the black genetic button is oval in shape with the intention of proving Mendel's second law experiment with a ratio of 9: 3: 3: 1. In this experiment, the phenotypes produced after the crossing were red-round, red-oval, yellow-round, and yellow-oval. With a genotype ratio of 16: 6: 10: 15 or 3: 1: 2: 3. The results obtained are not in accordance with Mendel's second law. It is possible to get the right results if you do the experiment several times. The results of the dihybrid cross that we conducted obtained the results of the dihybrid cross, there was a difference (H1), because H1 cannot be accepted, because based on the calculation table the value of 45.6 is greater than the chi-square of 7.82.

DOCUMENTATION

Monohybrid Genetic Buttons

Dihybrid Genetic Buttons

A. Title

Observation of Mitosis Phase and Chromosome Position in Allium cepa L.

B. PRACTICAL OBJECTIVES

At the end of this practicum, students are expected to be able to:

1. Recognize the phases of mitosis by observing the position of chromosomes.

2. Understand the stages in making squash method preparations used in microscopic observations.

C. TOOLS AND MATERIALS 

a). Tools

b). Material

D. WORK PROCEDURES

E. OBSERVATION RESULTS

F. DISCUSSION RESULTS

  In the 3rd practicum conducted on Wednesday, October 2, 2024, we conducted a mitosis observation practicum on Allium cepa L. In this practicum, the practicum participants were expected to be able to see the stages of mitosis and see the location of the chromosomes. However, in this practicum, our group was only able to see two of the four stages of mitosis. Namely in the prophase and telophase stages, we could not see all the stages of mitosis because there were several factors that made this practicum not go well.

  At the beginning of the practicum, the practicum participants were asked to prepare the tools and materials that had been ordered by the laboratory assistant, then the practicum participants were asked to sterilize the tools that would be used before placing the samples in the tools that had been provided. The first step we took was to place the onion bulbs in a petri dish filled with water until the roots grew. Cut the tip of the root that had grown with a razor, take the white part then place it in a watch glass and add 70% alcohol and let it soak for 2 minutes. After 2 minutes, the 70% alcohol was sucked up with blotting paper, then soak the roots in the H2O2 solution for 5 minutes. Then take the onion root pieces from the watch glass, then cut the tip (root cap) and place it on the object glass. The next step is to drip it with acetocarmine solution, then chop it using a rusty cutter, then cover it with a cover glass. Then grind it with your thumb or a blunt pencil tip. The preparation was passed over a spirit lamp. Finally, observe the stages of mitosis division under a microscope.

  In the end, our group only got the results of two of the four stages of mitosis, namely the prophase stage, which is the longest and most energy-consuming phase of mitosis. The events that occur during prophase are as follows: Chromatin threads become chromosomes, then the chromosomes double into two chromatids but are still attached to one centromere. and the second is the telophase stage. At this stage, we have entered the final stage of mitosis. At this stage, the chromosomes have arrived at their respective poles. The spindle threads begin to disappear and the nuclear membrane also begins to appear between the two separate groups of chromosomes.

DOCUMENTATION

Observation process under a microscope

Drying onion root tissue samples to make them easier to separate or flatten when making microscopic preparations.